TINGKATAN MANAJEMEN

TINGKATAN MANAJEMEN

pada pengertian tersebut dikatakan bahwa manajemen adalah proses pencapaian tujuan melalui kerja orang lain.

Dengan demikian berarti dalam manajemen terdapat minimal empat ciri yaitu :

1. ada tujuan yang hendak dicapai.

2. ada pemimpin (atasan).

3. Ada yang dipimpin (bahawan).

4. Ada kerja sama.

Oraganisational skills yaitu kecerdasan untuk mengatur berbagai usaha.

adapun tingkatan kepemimpinan atau manajemen terdiri dari :

1. Top Management (manajemen tingkat atas)

2. Middle Management ( Manajemen tingkat tengah )

3. Lower Management ( Manajemen tingkat bawah )

Pada setiap tingkatan tergantung pada besar kecilnya suatu organisasi atau instansi.

Namun demikian, biasanya top management jumlahnya akan lebih sedikit dari pada middle management dan middle management lebih sedikit dari pada lower management.

jadi semakin tinggi kedudukan seseorang semakin banyak memerlukan ketrampilan administrasinya/manajemen, tetapi ketrampilan opresionalnya semakin rendah.

Sebaliknya semakin rendah kedudukan seseorang maka ketrampilannya, operasionalnya semakin tinggi, sedangkan ketrampilan administrasinya/manajemen semakin rendah.

Dengan bahasa yang sederhana, sebetulnya ketiga jenis tingkatan manejemen tersebut bekerja pada waktu yang sama, tetapi jenis kegiatannya berbeda.

Mnajemen tingkat atas lebih banyak bekerja dengan pikiran, sedikit sekali bekerja secara fisik atau tenaga.

KONSEP MANAJEMEN

KONSEP MANAJEMEN

Manajemen merupakan kumpulan dari dua orang atau lebih yang saling beker jasama untuk mencapai suatu tujuan yang telah ditetapkan sebelumnya. Di dalam manajemen terjadi proses kegiatan seperti proses perencanaan, pengorganisasian, pemimpinan dan pengawasan untuk mencapai tujuan yang telah ditetapkan sebelumnya.

Menurut James A. O’Brien “manajemen sebagai suatu proses perencanaan, pengorganisasian, pengarahan, pengawasan suatu kegiatan”.

Menurut Richard L. Draft “ manajemen adalah pencapaian tujuan-tujuan organisasi dengan cara yang efektif dan efisien melalui perencanaan, pengorganisasian, kepemimpinan dan pengendalian/pengawasan sumberdaya organisasi”

Menurut henry L.Silk “manajemen adalah pengorganisasian seluruh sumberdaya melalui perencanaan, pengorganisasian, pemberian bimbingan dan pengendalian agar tercapai sasaran-sasaran dan tujuan-tujuan yang telah ditetapkan sebelumnya.

Jadi kalau kita menarik kesimpulan dari para pakar/ahli manajemen diatas dapat disimpulkan bahwa manajemen adalah suatu proses untuk mencapai suatu tujuan yang telah ditetapkan melalui perencanaan, pengorganisasian, kepemimpinan dan pemberian bimbingan.

Fungsi Manajemen

Fungsi Manajemen : Perencanaan, Pengorganisasian, Pengarahan, Pengendalian - Belajar di Internet Ilmu Teori Ekonomi Manajemen

Wed, 30/08/2006 - 1:36pm — godam64

Dalam Manajemen terdapat fungsi-fungsi manajemen yang terkait erat di dalamnya. Pada umumnya ada empat (4) fungsi manajemen yang banyak dikenal masyarakat yaitu fungsi perencanaan (planning), fungsi pengorganisasian (organizing), fungsi pengarahan (directing) dan fungsi pengendalian (controlling). Untuk fungsi pengorganisasian terdapat pula fungsi staffing (pembentukan staf). Para manajer dalam organisasi perusahaan bisnis diharapkan mampu menguasai semua fungsi manajemen yang ada untuk mendapatkan hasil manajemen yang maksimal.

Di bawah ini akan dijelaskan arti definisi atau pengertian masing-masing fungsi manajemen - POLC :

1. Fungsi Perencanaan / Planning
Fungsi perencanaan adalah suatu kegiatan membuat tujuan perusahaan dan diikuti dengan membuat berbagai rencana untuk mencapai tujuan yang telah ditentukan tersebut.

2. Fungsi Pengorganisasian / Organizing
Fungsi perngorganisasian adalah suatu kegiatan pengaturan pada sumber daya manusia dan sumberdaya fisik lain yang dimiliki perusahaan untuk menjalankan rencana yang telah ditetapkan serta menggapai tujuan perusahaan.

3. Fungsi Pengarahan / Directing / Leading
Fungsi pengarahan adalah suatu fungsi kepemimpinan manajer untuk meningkatkan efektifitas dan efisiensi kerja secara maksimal serta menciptakan lingkungan kerja yang sehat, dinamis, dan lain sebagainya.

4. Fungsi Pengendalian / Controling
Fungsi pengendalian adalah suatu aktivitas menilai kinerja berdasarkan standar yang telah dibuat untuk kemudian dibuat perubahan atau perbaikan jika diperlukan.

Kanom & Family in Mataram, Lombok, Indonesia

Kanom & Family at Kuta, Lombok, Indonesia

Kuta, Lombok, Indonesia

Codeswitching by: Kanom. Kuta, Lombok, Indonesia

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODS

 

Methodology is the body of knowledge that describes and analyzes method, indicating that limitation and recourses, clarifying their presupposition and consequences, and relating their potentialities to research advances (Miller, 1970: 65). In order, this chapter describes; Population and Sample, Data Collecting, and Data Analysis.

3.1.     Population and Sample

1.    Population

Population is the great group which represent generalizing target (Saville, et al. in Mahsun, 2005:28). Other opinion stated that, population is all individual to every obtained fact. According to Arikunto, (2006:130) stated that, population is the overall of research subject. Therefore, as according to accurate object, hence population in this research is the overall of the native speaker of local language (Sasak language) of “meriaq-meriku” dialect or overall of the Sasak community who use the Sasak language (Base Sasak) as first language (L1) at Kuta, Central Lombok, Pujut central Lombok regency of West Nusa Tenggara province.

Whereas, Kuta is a village with population + 4000 people divided into 14 sub villages (Dusun) in year of 2009, and it is predominated by Sasak community or Sasaknese whereas, they use Sasak language (base Sasak) as first language (mother tongue) with  “meriaq-meriku” dialect.

2.   Sample

Sample is part of area or location settlement which usage of certain language (Mahsun, 2005:72). Sample is some of member from population as an object of research (Arikunto, 2006:131). Hence, we can take several people as informant and one or several region which used the language as sample (Mahsun, 2005:29).

Overall the data in this research are sources from the informant which qualified as native speakers’ local language (Sasak language) of “meriaq-meriku” dialect. Furthermore, the technique of the researcher in gathering sample is random sampling. Where, it is the ways in gathering sample by randomize and mixes the subject in the population so that, all of subject in the population are same and has the same chance become a sample (Arikunto, 2006:134). Thereby the researcher gives same right to all subjects within this population to be sample in this research. All the subject or informant selected and specified with informant criteria in this research as bellow;

a.      Sex ; male or female

b.     Physical and mentally Healthy

c.      Age 20-65 years

d.     Minimum elementary school graduated

e.      Owning pride with their language and their language community

f.      Bilingual or multilingual

Because of in this area there are consist of 14 sub villages (Dusun) with the population + 4000 peoples in year of 2009, in order to the researcher using random sampling and taken only 30 informants, as above specification and those are represented of overall of the Sasak community (native speaker) in this place.

 

3.2.     Data Collecting

Data collecting is a systematic procedure and standard to get the data needed. The problem of study is always related to data collecting method. There are some collecting data methods that are used on a research (M. Nazir, 1985:211). The methods are; interview, documentation, observation, test, questionnaire, and rating scale (Arikunto, 2002:125-135). In this research, the researcher applies observation, audio recording and interview.

Observation method is used to gather data by analyzing the object of study and note down (note-taking) each detail of procedure that representative to variable which being discussed (Rianto, 2001:96). In this method the researcher as participant who observe the informants and participants conversation and sometimes the researcher took part in the conversation.

The researcher also has observed the Sasak community who used Sasak language (Base Sasak) with “meriaq-meriku” dialect by observe their daily interactions and sometimes took part. In this case the researcher unites with the participants or become participant within observed their chatting behavior so that he got the authentic data appropriate with data needed. According to Sudaryanto (in Anwar 2006:21) the researcher should be native speaker and the good researcher is the researcher doing the research has good mastery of the language.

 In this study, the researcher started his observation since February 2009 until September 2010, whereas during his observation the researcher always using note-taking and sometimes audio recording to in order to he got more valid data as needed.

Interview is method of data collecting whereas the researcher has contacted or conversation with speaker as guest speaker or native speaker (Mahsun, 2005:250). The researcher also used questions as preferred before (see, appendix: 4) to find out information or data from informants as respondents with the smaller amounts of respondent (Gunarwan, 2001:45). In this method researcher used note taking to write down the information from the informants according to the data needed.   

The presence of conversations between researcher and informants means the interactions between the researcher and informants. By that method the researcher got the data by using feedback technique and note taking with purposed to elicit the linguistics data of code switching among the Sasak community at Kuta, Central Lombok. Hence, the gathered are appropriated with the purposes of this research.  

3.3.     Data Analysis

After gathered the data, the next step is data analysis. In this step the researcher used the technique data analysis which Intra lingual and extra lingual match method because, it appropriated with kinds and purposes of this research.

The data gathered in this research is analyzed by the descriptive method with qualitative analysis, with is focus on directing of meaning, description, purification, and placement the data in each contexts and most used describe in words form than numeral. Besides that, overall collected possibly become keys of what has been a research.

By means of codeswitching research among the Sasak community at Kuta, Central Lombok, the researcher describe how the native speaker (Sasak community) who lived in this place are used of codeswitching in their daily life and explain about; types, and the factors that contributing to the use of it and also why it is can occur in this place as appropriated with this research target or purposes.